Enzyme Technology
Potentiometric biosensors
Potentiometric
biosensors make use of ion-selective electrodes in order to transduce the
biological reaction into an electrical signal. In the simplest terms this
consists of an immobilised enzyme membrane surrounding the probe from a pH-meter
(Figure 6.3), where the catalysed reaction generates or absorbs hydrogen ions
(Table 6.2). The reaction occurring next to the thin sensing glass membrane
causes a change in pH which may be read directly from the pH-meter's display.
Typical of the use of such electrodes is that the electrical potential is
determined at very high impedance allowing effectively zero current flow and
causing no interference with the reaction.
Figure 6.3. A simple potentiometric biosensor. A
semi-permeable membrane (a) surrounds the biocatalyst (b) entrapped next to the
active glass membrane (c) of a pH probe (d). The electrical potential (e) is
generated between the internal Ag/AgCl electrode (f) bathed in dilute HCl (g)
and an external reference electrode (h).
There are
three types of ion-selective electrodes which are of use in biosensors:
-
Glass electrodes for cations (e.g., normal pH electrodes) in which the sensing
element is a very thin hydrated glass membrane which generates a transverse
electrical potential due to the concentration-dependent competition between the
cations for specific binding sites. The selectivity of this membrane is
determined by the composition of the glass. The sensitivity to H+
is
greater than that achievable for NH4+,
-
Glass pH
electrodes coated with a gas-permeable membrane selective for CO2, NH3 or
H2S. The diffusion of the gas through this membrane
causes a change in pH of a sensing solution between the membrane and the
electrode which is then determined.
-
Solid-state electrodes where the
glass membrane is replaced by a thin membrane of a specific ion conductor made
from a mixture of silver sulphide and a silver halide. The iodide electrode is
useful for the determination of I− in the peroxidase reaction
(Table 6.2c) and also responds to cyanide ions.
Table 6.2.
Reactions involving the release or absorption of ions that may be utilised by
potentiometric biosensors.
(a) H+ cation,
glucose oxidase
H2O
D-glucose + O2
D-glucono-1,5-lactone + H2O2
D-gluconate + H+ [6.3]
penicillinase
penicillin penicilloic
acid + H+ [6.4]
urease (pH 6.0)a
H2NCONH2 + H2O + 2H+
2NH4+ + CO2 [6.5]
urease (pH 9.5)b
H2NCONH2 + 2H2O
2NH3 + HCO3− + H+ [6.6]
lipase
neutral lipids + H2O
glycerol + fatty acids + H+ [6.7]
(b) NH4+ cation,
L-amino acid oxidase
L-amino acid + O2
+ H2O keto acid + NH4+ + H2O2 [6.8]
asparaginase `
L-asparagine + H2O
L-aspartate + NH4+ [6.9]
urease (pH 7.5)
H2NCONH2 + 2H2O + H+
2NH4++ HCO3− [6.10]
(c) I− anion,
peroxidase
H2O2 + 2H+ + 2I−
I2 +
2H2O [6.11]
(d) CN−anion,
b-glucosidase
amygdalin + 2H2O
2glucose + benzaldehyde +
H+ + CN−
[6.12]
a Can also be used in NH4+ and
CO2 (gas) potentiometric biosensors.
b Can also be used in an
NH3 (gas) potentiometric biosensor.es80ll66bp
The
response of an ion-selective electrode is given by
(6.5)
where
E is the measured potential (in volts), E0 is a characteristic
constant for the ion-selective/external electrode system, R is the gas constant,
T is the absolute temperature (K), z is the signed ionic charge, F is the
Faraday, and [i] is the concentration of the free uncomplexed ionic species
(strictly, [i] should be the activity of the ion but at the concentrations
normally encountered in biosensors, this is effectively equal to the
concentration). This means, for example, that there is an increase in the
electrical potential of 59 mv for every decade increase in the concentration of H+
at 25°C. The logarithmic dependence of the potential on
the ionic concentration is responsible both for the wide analytical range and
the low accuracy and precision of these sensors. Their normal range of detection
is 10−4 - 10−2 M, although a minority are ten-fold more
sensitive. Typical response time are between one and five minutes allowing up to
30 analyses every hour.
Biosensors which involve H+ release or
utilisation necessitate the use of very weakly buffered solutions (i.e., < 5 mM)
if a significant change in potential is to be determined. The relationship
between pH change and substrate concentration is complex, including other such
non-linear effects as pH-activity variation and protein buffering. However,
conditions can often be found where there is a linear relationship between the
apparent change in pH and the substrate concentration. A recent development from
ion-selective electrodes is the production of ion-selective field effect
transistors (ISFETs) and their biosensor use as enzyme-linked
field effect transistors (ENFETs, Figure 6.4). Enzyme membranes
are coated on the ion-selective gates of these electronic devices, the biosensor
responding to the electrical potential change via the current output. Thus,
these are potentiometric devices although they directly produce changes in the
electric current. The main advantage of such devices is their extremely small
size (<< 0.1 mm2) which allows cheap mass-produced fabrication
using integrated circuit technology. As an example, a urea-sensitive FET (ENFET
containing bound urease with a reference electrode containing bound glycine) has
been shown to show only a 15% variation in response to urea (0.05 - 10.0 mg
ml−1) during its active lifetime of a month. Several analytes may be
determined by miniaturised biosensors containing arrays of ISFETs and ENFETs.
The sensitivity of FETs, however, may be affected by the composition, ionic
strength and concentrations of the solutions analysed.
Figure 6.4. Schematic
diagram of the section across the width of an ENFET. The actual dimensions of
the active area is about 500 mm long by 50 mm wide by 300
mm thick. The main body of the biosensor is a p-type silicon chip
with two n-type silicon areas; the negative source and the positive drain. The chip is insulated by a thin layer (0.1 mm thick) of silica
(SiO2) which forms the gate of the FET. Above this gate is an
equally thin layer of H+-sensitive material (e.g., tantalum oxide), a
protective ion selective membrane, the biocatalyst and the analyte solution, which is separated from
sensitive parts of the FET by an inert encapsulating polyimide photopolymer.
When a potential is applied between the electrodes, a current flows through
the FET dependent upon the positive potential detected at the ion-selective gate
and its consequent attraction of electrons into the depletion layer. This
current (I) is compared with that from a similar, but non-catalytic ISFET immersed in the same solution. (Note that the electric current is, by
convention, in the opposite direction to the flow of electrons).
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This page was established in 2004 and last updated by Martin
Chaplin on
6 August, 2014
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